Table 1 Accepted biomarkers for glycolysis, β-oxidation, TCA cycle function, oxidative phosphorylation and mitochondrial density
From: Skeletal muscle energy metabolism in environmental hypoxia: climbing towards consensus
| Aspect of metabolism | Biomarkers | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Expression, levels or activity of enzymes/transporters | Expression, levels or activity of regulators | Rate measurements | Other validated markers [ [13]] | |
| Glycolysis | ||||
| Monocarboxylate transporters (MCT) | ||||
| Hexokinase (HK) | ||||
| Phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI) | ||||
| Phosphofructokinase (PFK) | ||||
| Aldolase (ALD) | ||||
| Triose phosphate isomerase (TPI) | ||||
| Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (G3PDH) | ||||
| Phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) | ||||
| Phosphoglycerate mutase (PGM) | ||||
| Enolase (ENO) | ||||
| Pyruvate kinase (PyK) | ||||
| Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) | ||||
| Glucose oxidation | ||||
| β-oxidation | ||||
| Carnitine acylcarnitine translocase (CACT) | ||||
| Carnitine palmitoyl transferases (CPT) | ||||
| Acyl CoA dehydrogenases | ||||
| Enoyl CoA hydratase (ECAH) | ||||
| Enoyl CoA isomerase (ECAI) | ||||
| L-3-hydroxyacyl CoA dehydrogenase (HOAD) | ||||
| Thiolase (THI) | ||||
| PPARα | ||||
| Uptake/utilisation of fatty acids | ||||
| Oxidative phosphorylation with fatty acid substrates | ||||
| TCA cycle | ||||
| Pyruvate dehydrogenase | ||||
| Citrate synthase | ||||
| Aconitase | ||||
| Isocitrate dehydrogenase | ||||
| α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase | ||||
| Succinyl CoA synthetase | ||||
| Succinate dehydrogenase | ||||
| Fumarase | ||||
| Malate dehydrogenase | ||||
| Oxidative phosphorylation | ||||
| Complex I | ||||
| Complex II | ||||
| Complex III | ||||
| Complex IV | ||||
| Complex V | ||||
| Electron transferring flavoprotein (ETF) | ||||
| Oxidative phosphorylation | ||||
| Mitochondrial density (mitochondrial density measurements by electron microscopy) | ||||
| Bax | ||||
| Bcl-2* | ||||
| BNIP3* | ||||
| PGC-1α | ||||
| Citrate synthase activity | ||||
| Complex IV activity | ||||